Skip to main content

protoplast fusion


Protoplast Fusion – Detailed Notes


1. Definition

Protoplast fusion is a technique in which two or more protoplasts (cells without cell walls) are fused to form a single hybrid cell.
It is widely used in plant biotechnology for hybridization, gene transfer, and somatic hybrid production.
Also called somatic hybridization or somatic cell fusion.

2. Principle

Cell wall removal: Plant cells are treated with cell wall-degrading enzymes (cellulase, pectinase) to generate protoplasts.
Fusion of protoplasts: The naked cells are induced to fuse physically or chemically.
Hybrid cell formation: Nuclei from different protoplasts combine to form a heterokaryon.
Regeneration: The hybrid cell regenerates a new cell wall and divides, eventually forming a somatic hybrid plant.

Key Concept:


Protoplast fusion bypasses sexual incompatibility barriers, allowing hybridization between distant species or genera.

3. Steps in Protoplast Fusion

Step 1: Isolation of Protoplasts
Plant tissues (leaves, callus, cell cultures) are incubated in a solution containing cellulase and pectinase.
Osmotic stabilizers like mannitol or sorbitol prevent protoplast bursting.
Result: Viable, naked plant cells (protoplasts).

Step 2: Fusion of Protoplasts

Protoplasts from different genotypes or species are mixed and fusion is induced by:
A. Chemical Method
Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)-mediated fusion
PEG causes membrane destabilization, leading to fusion.
Often combined with Ca²⁺ ions to increase efficiency.
B. Physical Method
Electrofusion / Electric pulse fusion
High-voltage electric pulses align and fuse protoplasts.
Advantages: High efficiency, controlled fusion
C. Virus-mediated fusion (less common)
Involves inactivated Sendai virus to induce membrane fusion.


Step 3: Selection of Hybrid Cells
After fusion, cells are cultured in selective media to identify hybrid protoplasts.
Selection may be based on:
Morphological markers
Biochemical markers (enzyme isoforms)
Genetic markers (antibiotic resistance, reporter genes)
Step 4: Regeneration of Somatic Hybrids

Hybrid protoplasts regenerate cell walls.
Dividing protoplasts form callus, which can differentiate into shoots and roots under appropriate hormonal conditions.
Result: Somatic hybrid plant combining traits from both parents.

4. Factors Affecting Protoplast Fusion


Protoplast viability – Healthy cells are essential
Osmotic stabilizers – Prevent lysis
Fusion agent and concentration – PEG %, electric field parameters
Protoplast density – High density increases fusion probability
Source of protoplasts – Age and tissue type
Culture medium and growth regulators – Critical for regeneration.

5. Applications of Protoplast Fusion

5.1 Somatic Hybridization

Combines genomes of sexually incompatible plants.
Example: Fusion of Solanum tuberosum (potato) with Solanum brevidens for disease resistance.

5.2 Cytoplasmic Hybrid (Cybrid) Production

Fusion between enucleated and nucleated protoplasts.
Combines nuclear genome of one parent with cytoplasmic organelles of another.
Example: Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) in breeding programs.

5.3 Plant Breeding


Introduce disease resistance, stress tolerance, and improved traits across incompatible species.


5.4 Genetic Engineering


Allows transfer of organelles, mitochondria, or plastids from one cell to another.
Example: Transfer of chloroplast DNA for improved photosynthesis.


6. Advantages of Protoplast Fusion

Overcomes sexual incompatibility barriers
Allows combination of desired traits from distantly related species
Facilitates cytoplasmic hybrid (cybrid) production
Useful in plant breeding, biotechnology, and genetic engineering

7. Limitations
Protoplast isolation and culture can be technically challenging
Low fusion and regeneration efficiency in some species
Somaclonal variation may occur during regeneration
Requires sterile and controlled conditions
Not all protoplast fusions lead to viable hybrid plants
8. Examples of Somatic Hybridization
Parent Species
Hybrid / Trait
Purpose
Solanum tuberosum × S. brevidens
Disease-resistant potato
Late blight resistance
Nicotiana tabacum × N. glauca
Tobacco hybrid
Herbicide resistance
Brassica napus × B. rapa
Oilseed hybrids
Improved oil content
Citrus species
Disease-resistant citrus
Citrus tristeza virus tolerance

Applications

Somatic hybridization, cybrid production, plant breeding
Advantages
Overcomes sexual barriers, combines distant genomes

Limitations

Technical skill required, low regeneration in some species, somaclonal variation




Protoplast Fusion – 50 MCQs



Protoplast fusion is defined as:
a) Fusion of two bacteria
b) Fusion of two or more plant cells without cell walls ✅
c) Fusion of viral vectors
d) Fusion of DNA molecules
Protoplasts are plant cells:
a) With intact cell walls
b) Without cell walls ✅
c) Only from leaves
d) Only from roots
Protoplast fusion is also called:
a) Sexual hybridization
b) Somatic hybridization ✅
c) Viral transformation
d) Genetic recombination
Protoplasts are generated by:
a) Heat shock
b) Enzymatic removal of cell walls ✅
c) Electroporation
d) Microinjection
Which enzymes are commonly used for protoplast isolation?
a) Lipase and protease
b) Cellulase and pectinase ✅
c) DNase and RNase
d) Amylase and invertase
Osmotic stabilizers like mannitol are used to:
a) Digest cell walls
b) Prevent protoplast lysis ✅
c) Induce fusion
d) Select hybrid cells
Chemical fusion of protoplasts is induced by:
a) PEG (Polyethylene Glycol) ✅
b) Electric pulses
c) Viral vectors
d) Lipid vesicles
Physical fusion of protoplasts is achieved by:
a) PEG
b) Electrofusion ✅
c) Calcium phosphate
d) Lipofection
Virus-mediated protoplast fusion uses:
a) Active viruses
b) Inactivated Sendai virus ✅
c) Adenovirus
d) Retrovirus
Fusion of protoplasts produces a:
a) Monokaryon
b) Heterokaryon ✅
c) Viral particle
d) DNA plasmid
Heterokaryon contains:
a) Two or more nuclei from different parents ✅
b) Only one nucleus
c) Only cytoplasm
d) Only DNA
Regeneration of fused protoplasts requires:
a) Cell wall regeneration ✅
b) Viral infection
c) High voltage only
d) Lipid vesicles
Somatic hybrid plants can combine:
a) Only nuclear traits
b) Both nuclear and cytoplasmic traits ✅
c) Only cytoplasmic traits
d) Only chloroplast DNA
Protoplast fusion bypasses:
a) Genetic variation
b) Sexual incompatibility barriers ✅
c) Cell wall regeneration
d) Photosynthesis
Selection of hybrid protoplasts can be done by:
a) Morphological markers ✅
b) Biochemical markers ✅
c) Genetic markers ✅
d) All of the above ✅
Protoplast fusion is used to create:
a) Transgenic bacteria
b) Somatic hybrid plants ✅
c) Viral vectors
d) RNA molecules
PEG-mediated fusion works by:
a) Membrane destabilization and fusion ✅
b) DNA insertion
c) Protein synthesis
d) Electric pore formation
Electrofusion aligns protoplasts using:
a) Magnetic field
b) Electric pulses ✅
c) Chemical gradients
d) PEG
A cytoplasmic hybrid (cybrid) contains:
a) Nuclear DNA from both parents
b) Nuclear DNA from one parent and cytoplasm from another ✅
c) Only cytoplasm
d) Only chloroplast DNA
Protoplast fusion is particularly useful in:
a) Crossing sexually incompatible species ✅
b) Viral vector production
c) Bacterial transformation
d) RNA interference
Protoplast isolation requires:
a) High temperature
b) Cell wall degrading enzymes ✅
c) Viral infection
d) Lipid vesicles
Callus formation from fused protoplasts occurs during:
a) Selection
b) Regeneration ✅
c) Fusion
d) DNA transfer
Protoplast fusion can be used to transfer:
a) Mitochondria ✅
b) Chloroplasts ✅
c) Nuclear DNA ✅
d) All of the above ✅
Which factor affects fusion efficiency?
a) Protoplast viability ✅
b) Fusion agent concentration ✅
c) Cell density ✅
d) All of the above ✅
A limitation of protoplast fusion is:
a) Low technical skill required
b) Low regeneration efficiency in some species ✅
c) No selection required
d) Works in all plant species
Protoplast fusion allows production of:
a) Somaclonal variants
b) Somatic hybrids ✅
c) Viral particles
d) DNA plasmids
PEG-mediated fusion is enhanced by:
a) Calcium ions ✅
b) Magnesium ions
c) Sodium ions
d) Potassium ions
Protoplast fusion is widely used in:
a) Animal breeding
b) Plant biotechnology ✅
c) Bacterial transformation
d) Viral vector delivery
Regeneration of cell wall in fused protoplasts is necessary for:
a) Hybrid cell survival ✅
b) Viral infection
c) Electroporation
d) DNA uptake
Hybrid plants generated by protoplast fusion may exhibit:
a) Combined traits from both parents ✅
b) Traits of only one parent
c) Only cytoplasmic traits
d) Only nuclear traits
Protoplast fusion is less effective in:
a) Tobacco
b) Monocots ✅
c) Solanaceae
d) Brassica
Somatic hybridization is advantageous over sexual hybridization because:
a) Faster cell division
b) Avoids sexual incompatibility ✅
c) Less expensive
d) Uses viral vectors
Selection of fused protoplasts may include:
a) Antibiotic resistance ✅
b) Morphological markers ✅
c) Biochemical markers ✅
d) All of the above ✅
Protoplast fusion efficiency can be increased by:
a) High temperature
b) Optimizing PEG concentration ✅
c) Removing osmotic stabilizers
d) Using viral vectors
Cybrids are used in breeding programs to:
a) Enhance cytoplasmic traits ✅
b) Increase DNA size
c) Introduce viral genes
d) Only study RNA
Somatic hybrids can combine traits from:
a) Same species
b) Distantly related species ✅
c) Only diploid species
d) Only monocots
Protoplasts are fragile because:
a) They lack cytoplasm
b) They lack cell walls ✅
c) They lack nucleus
d) They lack DNA
Fusion of protoplasts leads to formation of:
a) Diploid cells only
b) Heterokaryons ✅
c) Viral particles
d) DNA plasmids
Protoplast fusion is used for:
a) Developing disease-resistant plants ✅
b) Bacterial transformation
c) Viral vaccine production
d) RNA interference
Electrofusion is advantageous because:
a) Low efficiency
b) High efficiency and controlled fusion ✅
c) Cheap and requires no equipment
d) Works without selection
Protoplast fusion can transfer:
a) Nuclear genes ✅
b) Chloroplast genes ✅
c) Mitochondrial genes ✅
d) All of the above ✅
Protoplasts are obtained from:
a) Leaves ✅
b) Roots ✅
c) Callus tissue ✅
d) All of the above ✅
Somatic hybrid plants can be screened using:
a) Morphological traits ✅
b) Biochemical assays ✅
c) Molecular markers ✅
d) All of the above ✅
Protoplast fusion bypasses:
a) Environmental stress
b) Sexual reproductive barriers ✅
c) Tissue culture
d) Selection process
PEG fusion efficiency depends on:
a) PEG concentration ✅
b) Incubation time ✅
c) Calcium ion concentration ✅
d) All of the above ✅
Limitations of protoplast fusion include:
a) Labor-intensive culture ✅
b) Low fusion rate in some species ✅
c) Somaclonal variation ✅
d) All of the above ✅
Somatic hybridization can be applied to:
a) Improve disease resistance ✅
b) Introduce stress tolerance ✅
c) Combine traits from unrelated species ✅
d) All of the above ✅
Which method is most widely used for protoplast fusion?
a) PEG-mediated fusion ✅
b) Electrofusion
c) Virus-mediated
d) Lipofection
Fusion of protoplasts is followed by:
a) Direct plant harvest
b) Cell wall regeneration and callus formation ✅
c) DNA extraction
d) Viral infection
Overall advantage of protoplast fusion:
a) Allows hybridization between sexually incompatible plants ✅
b) Only works in bacteria
c) Only transient DNA expression
d) Requires viral vectors

Comments

Post a Comment

Popular Posts

••CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE - FRITSCH

      MODULE -1       PHYCOLOGY  CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE - FRITSCH  ❖F.E. Fritsch (1935, 1945) in his book“The Structure and  Reproduction of the Algae”proposed a system of classification of  algae. He treated algae giving rank of division and divided it into 11  classes. His classification of algae is mainly based upon characters of  pigments, flagella and reserve food material.     Classification of Fritsch was based on the following criteria o Pigmentation. o Types of flagella  o Assimilatory products  o Thallus structure  o Method of reproduction          Fritsch divided algae into the following 11 classes  1. Chlorophyceae  2. Xanthophyceae  3. Chrysophyceae  4. Bacillariophyceae  5. Cryptophyceae  6. Dinophyceae  7. Chloromonadineae  8. Euglenineae    9. Phaeophyceae  10. Rhodophyceae  11. Myxophyce...
Post a Comment
Read more

ANTIGEN

1. Definition of ANTIGEN An antigen is any substance which, when introduced into the body, induces an immune response and specifically reacts with antibodies or sensitized T-cells. 👉 Substances may be foreign or self, but immunogenic antigens are usually foreign molecules. 2. Immunogen vs Antigen Immunogen Substance that induces immune response Antigen Substance that reacts with immune products Hapten Antigenic but not immunogenic alone 👉 All immunogens are antigens, but all antigens are not immunogens. 3. Chemical Nature of Antigens Antigens may be: a) Proteins (Most potent) Enzymes Toxins Structural proteins b) Polysaccharides Bacterial capsules Cell wall components c) Glycoproteins Viral envelope proteins d) Lipids & Nucleic acids Weakly antigenic Become immunogenic when combined with proteins 4. Properties of Antigens An ideal antigen shows: Foreignness High molecular weight (>10,000 Da) Chemical complexity Stability Specificity Degradability (processing by APCs) 5. Types ...
Post a Comment
Read more

MHC MOLECULES NOTES AND MCQ

MHC MOLECULES  1. INTRODUCTION MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex): A set of cell surface proteins essential for the adaptive immune system to recognize foreign molecules. Function: Presents antigenic peptides to T cells, initiating immune responses. Location: Found in all vertebrates; in humans, MHC is called HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigen). HLA Full Form: Human Leukocyte Antigen 2. Types of MHC Molecules MHC molecules are classified into two main classes and a third minor class: A. Class I MHC (MHC-I) Expression: On all nucleated cells (except RBCs) Function: Presents endogenous antigens (from inside the cell, e.g., viral proteins) to CD8+ cytotoxic T cells Structure: Heavy α chain (3 domains: α1, α2, α3) Light chain (β2-microglobulin) Peptide-binding groove formed by α1 and α2 Peptide length: Typically 8–10 amino acids Genes: HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C (highly polymorphic) B. Class II MHC (MHC-II) Expression: On antigen-presenting cells (APCs) like dendritic cells, macrophages, B cell...
Post a Comment
Read more

Southern Blotting

Southern Blotting  Introduction Southern blotting is a molecular biology technique used for the detection of specific DNA sequences in a complex mixture of DNA. It was developed by Edwin M. Southern in 1975. The method involves restriction digestion of DNA, separation by gel electrophoresis, transfer (blotting) onto a membrane, and hybridization with a labeled DNA probe. Principle of Southern Blotting The technique is based on the principle of complementary base pairing. A single-stranded labeled DNA probe hybridizes specifically with its complementary DNA sequence immobilized on a membrane. Detection of the label confirms the presence and size of the target DNA fragment. Steps Involved in Southern Blotting. 1. Isolation of DNA Genomic DNA is extracted from cells or tissues. DNA must be pure and intact to ensure accurate results. 2. Restriction Enzyme  Digestion DNA is digested using specific restriction endonucleases. Produces DNA fragments of varying lengths. Choice of enzym...
Post a Comment
Read more

Third Semester M.Sc. Degree Examination, December 2025BotanyBO 531: PLANT BREEDING, HORTICULTURE AND BIOSTATISTICS.

Third Semester M.Sc. Degree Examination, December 2025 Botany BO 531: PLANT BREEDING, HORTICULTURE AND BIOSTATISTICS (2024 Admission) Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 75 Answer these questions in one or two sentences.  Each question carries 1 mark. 1. Who introduced maize in India? 2.Name an organization in India for plant introduction. 3.  What is BSI? 4.What is Super Rice? 5.Define somaticplastic sterility? 6.What is a chemical mutagen? Give example. 7.What is Arboriculture? 8.What is MAP in Horticulture? 9.Define probability. 10. What is LSD in Biostatistics? (10 × 1 = 10 Marks) II.Answer the following questions in not more than 50 words . 11] Comment on Primary plant introduction.                OR 12. What are microcenters? Explain. 13.Explain zygotic sterility. How can we overcome this in plant breeding?                          OR 14 Describe a green house and its uses. ...
Post a Comment
Read more

Mapping of DNA

DNA MAPPING   1. Introduction DNA mapping refers to the process of determining the relative positions of genes or DNA sequences on a chromosome. It provides information about the organization, structure, and distance between genetic markers in a genome. DNA mapping is an essential step toward genome sequencing, gene identification, disease diagnosis, and genetic engineering. DNA maps serve as roadmaps that guide researchers to locate specific genes associated with traits or diseases. 2. Objectives of DNA Mapping To locate genes on chromosomes To determine the order of genes To estimate distances between genes or markers To study genome organization To assist in genome sequencing projects. 3. Principles of DNA Mapping DNA mapping is based on: Recombination frequency Physical distance between DNA fragments Hybridization of complementary DNA Restriction enzyme digestion Use of genetic markers The closer two genes are, the less frequently they recombine during meiosis. 4 . Types of DNA...
2 comments
Read more

Plaque Blotting Technique

Plaque Blotting Technique Introduction Plaque blotting is a molecular biology screening technique used to identify specific DNA or RNA sequences present in bacteriophage plaques formed on a bacterial lawn. It is especially useful in the screening of recombinant phage libraries such as λ (lambda) phage genomic or cDNA libraries. This technique combines: Plaque assay (to isolate individual phage clones) Blotting technique (to transfer nucleic acids onto a membrane) Hybridization (to detect specific sequences using labeled probes) Principle of Plaque Blotting The principle of plaque blotting is based on nucleic acid hybridization. Each plaque represents a clone of phage particles containing identical DNA. DNA from phage particles in plaques is: Released Denatured into single strands Transferred onto a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane The membrane is incubated with a labeled DNA/RNA probe complementary to the target sequence. Hybridization between probe and target DNA identifies positive p...
Post a Comment
Read more

PLANT INTROUCTION: TYPES AND PROCEDURE

PLANT INTROUCTION: TYPES AND PROCEDURE 1. Introduction Plant introduction is the transfer of plant species, varieties, or genotypes from one geographical area to another where they were not previously grown.  It is one of the oldest and most important methods of crop improvement and forms the basis of modern agriculture. Many important crops such as wheat, rice, maize, potato, cotton, sugarcane, and tobacco have been introduced from other countries. Definition : Plant introduction is the process of introducing plants or plant genetic material from their native or foreign regions into a new area for cultivation, evaluation, and utilization. 2. Objectives of Plant Introduction To increase crop productivity To introduce high-yielding varieties To obtain disease- and pest-resistant plants To introduce early maturing or drought-tolerant varieties To improve quality traits (oil content, protein, fiber, taste) To broaden the genetic base of crops To replace inferior local varieties To dev...
Post a Comment
Read more